Zoonotic Diseases

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

The following is a list of potential amphibian zoonoses.

Aeromonas hydrophila infection: Commonly present in aquatic ecosystems. Exposure can occur through ingestion or direct contact with wounded skin. Symptoms often appear within 1–2 days and may include gastroenteritis, localized skin infections, or septicemia, particularly in immunocompromised individuals.

Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), including Mycobacterium marinum infection: Commonly found in freshwater and saltwater environments, although human infections are relatively rare. Exposure typically occurs through direct contact between contaminated water and broken or abraded skin. Symptoms may develop within 7–14 days and can include dermatitis, subcutaneous nodules, skin lesions, tissue loss, arthritis, and bone infections. Individuals who are immunocompromised may be at greater risk for severe disease.

Salmonellosis: Typically transmitted through the fecal-oral route via contaminated food, water, or surfaces. Symptoms usually develop within 6–72 hours after exposure and commonly include fever, nausea, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Most individuals recover within 2–4 days, although severe illness is more likely in immunocompromised persons.

Additional bacteria that may be associated with environmental or waterborne exposure include Chlamydia infection spp., Enterobacteriaceae, Plesiomonas shigelloides infection, Pseudomonas infection spp., Clostridial infection spp., Escherichia coli infection, Streptococcal infection spp., and Staphylococcal infection spp.
 

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

The following is a list of potential avian zoonoses.

Avian Influenza: Wild aquatic birds are natural reservoirs for influenza A viruses. Certain strains, such as H5N1 and H7N9, can infect humans, causing severe respiratory illness and sometimes death. Transmission usually occurs through close contact with infected birds or contaminated environments. While most avian influenza strains do not easily infect humans, outbreaks in poultry can have significant public health and economic impacts.

Avian Tuberculosis: Mycobacterium avian (and possibly other species) is a causative agent of tuberculosis. Affected birds may carry the disease for years, and intermittently shed organisms.  Humans are more commonly infected with M. tuberculosis and occasionally M. bovis. It is believed that immunocompetent humans are resistant to the strains of tuberculosis found in birds, but immunocompromised people, such as those infected with HIV, those on chemotherapy, the elderly and children, are at increased risk. In adults, tuberculosis frequently affects the lungs, producing respiratory signs.  People who are infected with human tuberculosis should not own birds since they can serve as a source of infection for their pets.

Cryptococcosis: Cryptococcus neoformans is a fungus frequently found in pigeon droppings and in soil in many parts of the world. Disease in humans usually presents as chronic meningitis; infection of the lungs, kidneys, prostate and bone may also occur.  Immunodeficient persons have increased susceptibility to cryptococcosis and disseminated MAC infection and should consult with their personal physician before working with birds.

Psittacosis (Ornithosis, Chlamydiosis): Psittacosis is a disease caused by the bacteria, Chlamydia psittaci. Psittacosis is common in wild birds of all types and can occur in laboratory bird colonies as well.  The reservoir/source of infection to people is infected birds, especially ones displaying symptoms (diarrhea, respiratory signs, conjunctivitis and nasal discharge.)  This disease is highly contagious to other birds as well as humans.  Transmission may be through direct contact or from aerosolization with exudative materials (e.g. pus), secretions or feces. Direct contact with the bird is not necessary.  In people, the disease occurs 7-14 days after exposure. An infected human may develop a respiratory illness of varying severity, from flu-like symptoms in mild cases to pneumonia in more significant infections. Serious cases can result in extensive interstitial pneumonia and rarely hepatitis, myocarditis, thrombophlebitis, and encephalitis. It is responsive to antibiotic therapy. Relapses occur in untreated infections.

Salmonellosis:  Salmonellosis is a disease caused by the bacteria species Salmonella. It is one of the most common zoonotic diseases in humans.  Birds and reptiles (especially iguanas) are the animals most frequently associated with Salmonella.  Most people typically contract the disease by consuming food or water contaminated with the bacteria. Symptoms include diarrhea (usually watery, and occasionally bloody), nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, and abdominal cramps. If the bacteria leaves the blood stream and enters the central nervous system, meningitis/encephalitis may develop. Salmonellosis is a very serious disease in humans, especially for young children and people with compromised immune systems.
 

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

The following lists several of the diseases that are associated with the care and handling of camelids.   

Brucellosis:  Is a bacterial infectious disease of animals and humans. The disease in animals is caused by various species of brucella.  It is generally limited to abortions and reproductive organ infections. In humans, the disease may mimic flu with symptoms of headache, fever, fatigue, muscle and joint pain.  Rare complications include crippling arthritis, endocarditis, or meningitis. There is no cure for brucellosis in animals. Humans are treated with antibiotics for up to 4 to 6 weeks. Animals and humans are exposed to the brucella bacterium by handling or having contact with infected placentas, amniotic fluids, vaginal discharges, milk, semen, reproductive tissues, and exudates from infected animals, usually just prior to and after an abortion.

Campylobacter: This is a gram negative bacterium that has a worldwide distribution. Although most cases of human campylobacteriosis are of unknown origin, transmission is thought to occur by the fecal-oral route, through contamination of food or water, or by direct contact with infected fecal material. The organism has also been isolated from houseflies.  Campylobacter is shed in the feces for at least six weeks after infection. Symptoms are acute gastrointestinal illness: diarrhea with or without blood, abdominal pain, and fever. It may cause pseudoappendicitis and, rarely, septicemia and arthritis. Usually, it is a brief, self-limiting disease that can be treated with antibiotics.

Q-Fever: An infection caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii, is most commonly associated with sheep, although goats, cattle, and other mammals can be sources of infection. Infected ruminants are usually asymptomatic. The bacteria is shed in the urine, feces, milk, and most importantly, birth products (placenta, amniotic fluid, blood and soiled bedding) of infected animals. Q-Fever is spread by aerosolization of infected body fluids. Disease transmission can be reduced by careful disposal of birth products.  In most cases, Q-Fever is manifested by flu-like symptoms that usually resolve within 2 weeks and can be sometimes misdiagnosed as the flu; however, it can be severe in those with other health issues and can lead to pulmonary and cardiac complications. Respiratory protection should be used during the birthing process.  Employees can be screened for Q-Fever through the UK Occupational Health Services.  

Salmonella: This bacterium inhabits the intestinal tract of many animals and humans. Salmonella occurs worldwide and is easily transmitted through ingestion. Common symptoms of the illness are acute gastroenteritis with sudden onset of abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea and fever. Antibiotic treatment is standard treatment for the illness.
 

Potential Injury &  Zoonotic Diseases   

The following is a list of potential zoonotic diseases associated with cats.

Cat Scratch Disease: Caused by the bite, scratch, or lick of a cat. Causal agent of the disease is not clearly defined. The disease is benign and heals spontaneously (from 7 to 20) days after symptoms appear and is characterized by regional lymphadenopathy (swollen glands) along with signs of a mild systemic infection consisting of fever, chills, generalized pain, and malaise.

MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus): Cats can act as reservoirs for MRSA, often colonizing their skin, nasal passages or perianal area without showing symptoms. Transmission can occur through direct contact. In people, MRSA most often causes skin and soft tissue infections, sometimes with serious complications. Prevention focuses on hygiene.

Pasteurella multocida: This bacterium resides in the oral cavity or upper respiratory tract of cats. Human infection is generally associated with a bite or scratch. Human infection generally appears as local inflammation around the bite or scratch, possibly leading to abscess formation with systemic symptoms.

Rabies: Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection to people is an infected animal.  The virus is shed in saliva 1-14 days before clinical symptoms develop. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through direct contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. The incubation period is from 2 to 8 weeks, possibly longer. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and laryngeal spasms are present. Muscle spasms, extreme excitability, and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through Occupational Health Services.

Ringworm: Dermatophyte infection (most commonly Microsporum spp. and Trichophyton spp.) is commonly known as ringworm because of the characteristic circular lesion often associated with it. Dermatophytes are classified as fungi and may not be readily apparent. Disease in people is from direct contact with an infected animal. Ringworm is usually self-limiting and appears as circular, reddened, rough skin. It is responsive to prescription topical therapy.

Toxoplasmosis: A protozoan, Toxoplasma gondii has its complete life cycle only in cats, which are the only source of infective oocysts. Other mammals (including people) may become intermediate hosts.  It takes at least 24 hours for oocysts shed in the feces to become infective, so removal of fresh feces daily reduces the risk of acquiring infection. Toxoplasmosis in people resembles mild flu-like symptoms unless immune suppressed (in some individuals it may cause ocular and neurological disease). Infection in a previously uninfected pregnant woman can result in prenatal infection of the developing fetus, which can cause in birth defects. Should an accidental mucosal or needle stick exposure occur, medical services should be obtained through UK Occupational Health Services.

Other Diseases:  There are several other diseases that can be possibly spread through working with cats. Cryptosporidia, Giardia, and Campylobacter are transmitted via the fecal/oral route. These diseases in people are exhibited by acute gastrointestinal illness; diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and fever. Clinical signs are generally brief and self-limiting.
 

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

The following lists several of the diseases that are associated with the care and handling of cattle:

Anthrax: This is an acute bacterial infection of humans and animals which may be rapidly fatal. The disease occurs worldwide and is an occupational hazard of persons, such as wool-sorters, farm workers and veterinarians, in contact with infected animals or their by-products.  All domestic, zoo and wild animals are potentially at risk of infection. Anthrax bacilli spores contaminate soil for many years. Humans are usually infected by inoculation from direct contact with infected animals, carcasses or animal products and contaminated soil. Inhalation or ingestion of spores may occur. Animals are infected from contaminated feed, forage, water or carcasses.  Cutaneous anthrax causes localized ulceration (sores) and scabs with fever and headache, which may be followed within a few days by severe illness, such as septicemia and meningitis. Inhalation anthrax causes fulminating pneumonia. Intestinal anthrax is associated with acute gastroenteritis (nausea, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea).

Brucellosis: This is a bacterial disease that affects the reproductive systems of animals and causes recurring fevers and arthritis. People can become infected through direct contact or aerosol exposure, and it can also be transmitted through drinking untreated infected cows’ milk. Symptoms in people include flu-like signs, joint pain, and recurring fevers. In more severe cases, organs such as the liver, heart and central nervous system may become inflamed. It can be a fatal disease.

Milker’s nodules (Pseudocowpox): Milker’s nodule is an infection of the skin caused by a virus that infects the teats of cows. It produces mild infections of the teats of cows, i.e. ring sores, as well as ulcers in the mouths of calves.  Human infection is from contact with infected lesions on the animals.  After an incubation period of 5-14 days, small, red, raised, flat-topped spots develop. Within a week, they appear as red-blue, firm, slightly tender lumps that are usually on the hands, particularly the fingers but occasionally the face. There may be secondary bacterial infection. Many develop red streaks up the lymph channels on the arms and some enlargement of the lymph glands. It is difficult to reliably distinguish milkers' nodules from orf, the related condition in sheep, but the appearance of the nodules, number of lesions and whether cows or sheep are being contacted is a guide. Several weeks after the appearance of the nodules some may develop an eruption of small raised spots or blisters on the hands, arms, legs and neck. and usually fades in 1-2 weeks and usually resolves fully.

Q-Fever:  An infection caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii, is most commonly associated with sheep, although goats, cattle, and other mammals can be sources of infection. Infected ruminants are usually asymptomatic. The bacteria are shed in the urine, feces, milk and, most importantly, birth products (placenta, amniotic fluid, blood and soiled bedding) of infected animals. Q-Fever is spread by aerosolization of infected body fluids. Disease transmission can be reduced by careful disposal of birth products.  In most cases, Q-Fever is manifested by flu-like symptoms that usually resolve within 2 weeks. Sometimes it can be misdiagnosed as the flu. It can be severe in those with other health problems and can lead to pulmonary and cardiac complications. Employees can be screened for Q-Fever through UK Occupational Health Services.  

Rabies: Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection is an infected animal.  The virus is shed in saliva 1-14 days before clinical symptoms develop. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through direct contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. The incubation period is from 2 to 8 weeks, possibly longer. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and laryngeal spasms are present. Muscle spasms and extreme excitability are present and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through Occupational Health Services.

Other Diseases:  A few of the other diseases that can possibly be spread through working with cattle include campylobacteriosis, cryptosporidiosis, giardiasis, and salmonellosis.  These are transmitted via the fecal/oral route.  These diseases are exhibited by acute gastrointestinal illness.
 

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Brucellosis: The bacterial organism, Brucella canis, is found in dogs and swine breeding colonies where it will be manifested by abortions and reproductive organ infections. Transmission of B. canis to humans is not clear but probably occurs through oral or transcutaneous (skin) contact with organism-infected blood or other tissues.  The disease in humans may mimic the flu with symptoms such as fever, headache, fatigue, muscle and joint pain. Rare complications include arthritis, meningitis and endocarditis. There is no cure for brucellosis in animals, but humans respond to antibiotic treatment over a course of 4 to 6 weeks.

Lyme disease: Caused by bacteria of the genus Borrelia, primarily Borrelia burgdorferi in North America, and is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected ticks, mainly from the Ixodes genus. It is considered zoonotic because the bacteria naturally circulate between animal hosts and ticks, with humans acting as accidental hosts. Humans cannot transmit the disease to each other; infection occurs only when a tick that has fed on an infected animal bites a person.  Early localized infection often presents as erythema migrans, a characteristic expanding skin rash. If untreated, Lyme disease can progress to affect the nervous system, joints, heart, and skin, causing symptoms such as arthritis, neurological deficits, and cardiac complications.

Mange: Caused by the mites Sarcoptes, Cheyletiella, and Trombicula, are transmitted relatively easily to people through direct physical contact. These zoonotic skin diseases can cause itchy, scaly skin lesions.

MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus): Dogs can act as reservoirs for MRSA, often colonizing their skin without showing symptoms. Transmission can occur through direct contact. In people, MRSA most often causes skin and soft tissue infections, sometimes with serious complications. Prevention focuses on hygiene. 

Rabies: Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal; however, it is very rare in the research environment because dogs are purchased from high quality sources with excellent vaccination and disease control programs.  The source of infection to people is an infected animal. Dogs shed the virus in their saliva 1-14 days before developing clinical signs. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite or saliva on an open wound. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and laryngeal (throat) spasms are present. Muscle spasms, extreme excitability, and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through UK Occupational Health Services.

Ringworm: Dermatophyte infection (most commonly Microsporum spp. and Trichophyton spp.) is commonly known as ringworm because of the characteristic circular lesion often associated with it. Dermatophytes are classified as fungi and may not be readily apparent. Disease in people is from direct contact with an infected animal. Ringworm is usually self-limiting and appears as circular, reddened, rough skin. It is responsive to prescription topical therapy.

Other Diseases: There are several other diseases that can be spread through working with dogs. Cryptosporidia, giardia, campylobacter and salmonella are transmitted via the fecal/oral route. These diseases in people are exhibited by acute gastrointestinal illness (diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and fever). Clinical signs are generally brief and self-limiting.
 

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

The following is a list of known and potential fish borne zoonoses.

Aeromonas spp.: Aeromonad organisms are facultative anaerobic, gram-negative rods. These organisms can produce septicemia (a severe generalized illness) in infected fish. The species most commonly isolated is A. hydrophilia. It is found world wide in tropical fresh water and is considered part of the normal intestinal microflora of healthy fish. Humans infected with Aeromonas may show a variety of clinical signs, but the two most common syndromes are gastroenteritis (nausea, vomiting and diarrhea) and localized wound infections. Again, infections are more common and serious in the immunocompromised individual.

Mycobacterium: Organisms in the genus Mycobacterium are non-motile, acid-fast rods. Two species, M. fortuitum and M. marinum, are recognized as pathogens of tropical fish. Humans are typically infected by contamination of lacerated or abraded skin with aquarium water or fish contact. A localized granulomatous nodule (hard bump) may form at the site of infection, most commonly on hands or fingers. The granulomas usually appear approximately 6-8 weeks after exposure to the organism. They initially appear as reddish bumps (papules) that slowly enlarge into purplish nodules. The infection can spread to nearby lymph nodes. More disseminated forms of the disease are likely in immunocompromised individuals. It is possible for these species of mycobacterium to cause some degree of positive reaction to the tuberculin skin test.

Other Bacteria and Protozoa: Below is a list of additional zoonotic organisms that have been documented in fish or aquarium water. Human infections are typically acquired through ingestion of contaminated water (resulting in gastroenteritis symptoms) or from wound contamination.

• Gram-negative Organisms: Plesiomonas shigelloides, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Klebsiella spp., Edwardsiella tarda
• Gram-positive Organisms: Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Clostridium, Erysipelothrix, Nocardia
• Protozoa: Cryptosporidium
   

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Avian Influenza: Wild aquatic birds are natural reservoirs for influenza A viruses. Certain strains, such as H5N1 and H7N9, can infect humans, causing severe respiratory illness and sometimes death. Transmission usually occurs through close contact with infected birds or contaminated environments. While most avian influenza strains do not easily infect humans, outbreaks in poultry can have significant public health and economic impacts.

Avian Tuberculosis:  Mycobacterium avian (and possibly other species) is a causative agent of tuberculosis. Affected birds may carry the disease for years, and intermittently shed organisms.  Humans are more commonly infected with M. tuberculosis and occasionally M. bovis. It is believed that immunocompetent humans are resistant to the strains of tuberculosis found in birds, but immunocompromised people, such as those infected with HIV, those on chemotherapy, the elderly and children, are at increased risk. In adults, tuberculosis frequently affects the lungs, producing respiratory signs.  People who are infected with human tuberculosis should not own birds since they can serve as a source of infection for their pets.

Campylobacter: This is a gram-negative bacterium that has a worldwide distribution. Although most cases of human campylobacteriosis are of unknown origin, transmission is thought to occur by the fecal-oral route, through contamination of food or water, or by direct contact with infected fecal material. The organism has also been isolated from houseflies.  Campylobacter is shed in the feces for at least six weeks after infection. Symptoms are acute gastrointestinal illness (diarrhea with or without blood, abdominal pain, and fever). It may cause pseudoappendicitis and, rarely, septicemia and arthritis. Usually, it is a brief self-limiting disease that can be treated with antibiotics.

Cryptococcosis: Cryptococcus neoformans is a fungus frequently found in pigeon droppings and in soil in many parts of the world. Disease in humans usually presents as chronic meningitis; infection of the lungs, kidneys, prostate and bone may also occur.  Immunodeficient persons have increased susceptibility to cryptococcosis and disseminated MAC infection and should consult with their personal physician before working with birds.

Erysipelas is a bacterial infection of chickens caused by Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae that is transmitted through direct contact with animals, tissues and droppings. The risk of infection increases if people have unprotected cuts or abrasions on their hands. Disease in humans may present as painful, red/purple swelling on the hands. In severe cases it can lead to systemic infections including cellulitis, bacteremia, endocarditis, encephalitis, and arthritis.

Histoplasmosis: Caused by the bacteria Histoplasma capsulatum, is a fungal disease that is spread to people by breathing in dust contaminated with the fungus from pigeon or bat droppings. Fungal spores are found in the environment, especially in areas with bird and bat droppings. Birds do not get sick from exposure to histoplasmosis. Infections in humans is rare. People who do become sick tend to develop pneumonia-like symptoms (fever, chest pains, and a dry or nonproductive cough) within 1–3 weeks after exposure. People with weak immune systems should avoid activities such as disturbing material where there are bird or bat droppings, cleaning chicken coops, exploring caves, and cleaning, remodeling, or tearing down old buildings.

Psittacosis (Ornithosis, Chlamydiosis): Psittacosis is a disease caused by the bacteria, Chlamydia psittaci. Psittacosis is common in wild birds of all types and can occur in laboratory bird colonies as well.  The reservoir/source of infection to people is infected birds, especially ones displaying symptoms (diarrhea, respiratory signs, conjunctivitis and nasal discharge.)  This disease is highly contagious to other birds as well as humans.  Transmission may be through direct contact or from aerosolization with exudative materials (e.g. pus), secretions or feces. Direct contact with the bird is not necessary.  In people, the disease occurs 7-14 days after exposure. An infected human may develop a respiratory illness of varying severity, from flu-like symptoms in mild cases to pneumonia in more significant infections. Serious cases can result in extensive interstitial pneumonia and rarely hepatitis, myocarditis, thrombophlebitis, and encephalitis. It is responsive to antibiotic therapy. Relapses occur in untreated infections.

Salmonellosis:  Salmonellosis is a disease caused by the bacteria species Salmonella. It is one of the most common zoonotic diseases in humans.  Birds and reptiles (especially iguanas) are the animals most frequently associated with Salmonella.  Most people typically contract the disease by consuming food or water contaminated with the bacteria. Symptoms include diarrhea (usually watery, and occasionally bloody), nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, and abdominal cramps. If the bacteria leaves the blood stream and enters the central nervous system, meningitis/encephalitis may develop. Salmonellosis is a very serious disease in humans, especially for young children and people with compromised immune systems.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

The following lists several of the diseases that are associated with the care and handling of horses:

Anthrax: This is an acute bacterial infection of humans and animals which may be rapidly fatal. The disease occurs worldwide and is an occupational hazard of persons, such as wool-sorters, farm workers and veterinarians, in contact with infected animals or their by-products.  All domestic, zoo and wild animals are potentially at risk of infection. Anthrax bacilli are released from infected carcasses and form resistant spores on exposure to air. These spores contaminate soil for many years. Humans are usually infected by inoculation from direct contact with infected animals, carcasses or animal products, and contaminated soil. Inhalation or ingestion of spores may occur. Animals are infected from contaminated feed, forage, water or carcasses.  Cutaneous anthrax causes localized ulceration (sores) and scabs with fever and headache, which may be followed within a few days by septicemia and meningitis. Inhalation anthrax causes fulminating pneumonia. Intestinal anthrax is associated with acute gastroenteritis (nausea, diarrhea, and bloody diarrhea).

Rabies:  Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection to people is an infected animal.  The virus is shed in saliva 1-14 days before clinical symptoms develop. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through direct contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. The incubation period is from 2 to 8 weeks, possibly longer. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite, followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and laryngeal spasms are present. Muscle spasms, extreme excitability, and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through Occupational Health Services.

Salmonella: This bacterium inhabits the intestinal tract of many animals and humans. Salmonella occurs worldwide and is easily transmitted through ingestion. Common symptoms of the illness are acute gastroenteritis with sudden onset of abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea and fever. Antibiotic treatment is standard treatment for the illness.

Tuberculosis: This disease may be transmitted to people through contact with birds, livestock, and non-human primates. Tuberculosis is usually transmitted by the aerosolization of infective bacilli, which can be found mainly in the sputum as well as other body fluids. Contact with body fluids during necropsy may be a major mode of transmission of TB to humans. Pulmonary tuberculosis is the most common type but other organs may also be involved.

Other Diseases: Brucellosis, cryposporidiosis, leptospirosis, and yersiniosis are other diseases that can be transmitted through contact with horses.  These diseases, in humans, initially exhibit as an acute gastrointestinal illness.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Some of the zoonotic diseases associated with wild mustelids are:

Campylobacter: This is a gram-negative bacterium that has a worldwide distribution. Although most cases of human campylobacteriosis are of unknown origin, transmission is thought to occur by the fecal-oral route, through contamination of food or water, or by direct contact with infected fecal material. The organism has also been isolated from houseflies.  Campylobacter is shed in the feces for at least six weeks after infection. Symptoms are acute gastrointestinal illness (diarrhea with or without blood, abdominal pain, and fever). It may cause pseudoappendicitis and, rarely, septicemia and arthritis. Usually, it is a brief self-limiting disease that can be treated with antibiotics.

Rabies:  Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection to people is an infected animal.  The virus is shed in saliva 1-14 days before clinical symptoms develop. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through direct contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. The incubation period is from 2 to 8 weeks, possibly longer. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite, followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and laryngeal spasms are present. Muscle spasms, extreme excitability, and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through Occupational Health Services.

Salmonellosis: It is a disease caused by the bacteria species Salmonella. It is one of the most common zoonotic diseases in humans.  Birds and reptiles (especially iguanas) are the animals most frequently associated with Salmonella.  Most people typically contract the disease by consuming food or water contaminated with the bacteria. Symptoms include diarrhea (usually watery and occasionally bloody), nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, and abdominal cramps. If the bacteria leaves the blood stream and enters the central nervous system, meningitis/encephalitis may develop. Salmonellosis is a very serious disease in humans, especially for young children and people with compromised immune systems.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases  

All NHPs undergo rigorous testing to ensure they are free of several zoonotic agents prior to their arrival at UK.

The following is a list of some of the non-human primate zoonoses.

Cercopithicine herpesvirus 1 (CHV1, Herpesvirus simiae, monkey B virus): Macaques are the major source of infection. This disease is quite rare in humans, but if contracted, it is either fatal or causes permanent neurological disease. Most macaques are asymptomatic carriers or display only mild oral lesions that are difficult to detect. Therefore, all macaques should be presumed to be shedding B-virus.  Other old world primates may also be infected. Transmission occurs by percutaneous exposure to infected oral or genital secretions via bites, scratches, needle sticks, or direct contact with macaque tissue.  Additionally, exposure can occur by splashes to the eyes, mouth, or open skin lesions from infected body fluids. The incubation period is 5-21 days.  Some cases have presented as an unexplained febrile disease (fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, and dizziness) and persistent headache. Other cases have presented with fluid-filled vesicles that form near skin wounds sustained from an injury related to the macaque and are followed by localized paresthesia.

Salmonellosis: As in the case of Shigella, the Salmonella pathogen is probably acquired by non-human primates in captivity from exposure to infected humans, and transmission of the agent back to humans is likely. Various species and bio-serotypes of Salmonella have been isolated from non-human primates such as macaques, guenons, tamarins, owl monkeys, and chimpanzees, however, it is rarely reported in established colonies. Symptoms of infection are watery diarrhea, sometimes containing blood or mucus, and fever.

Shigellosis: Shigella appears to be acquired by non-human primates in captivity from contact with infected humans.  The presence of asymptomatic, chronic carriers and re-infections can maintain high rates of endemic infections in research colonies; stress promotes episodes of overt disease. Clinical signs can include diarrhea containing mucus, dehydration, and weight loss. Transmission is by the fecal-oral route in humans and non-human primates. In humans, the incubation period averages 1-4 days. The disease varies from mild gastrointestinal infections to dysentery or watery diarrhea, fever, and nausea.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

All laboratory rabbits undergo rigorous testing to ensure they are free of several zoonotic agents prior to their arrival at UK.

The following is a known and potential rabbit zoonotic disease:

Pasteurella multocida: This bacteria lives in the oral cavity or upper respiratory tract of rabbits. Human infection is generally associated with a rabbit bite or scratch. Human infection is generally local inflammation around the bite or scratch, possibly leading to abscess formation with systemic symptoms.

Potential Injury & Zoonotic Diseases

The following are some of the zoonotic diseases that can be acquired by handling reptiles.

Aeromonas Hydrophila:  This is a species of bacterium that is present in all freshwater environments and in brackish water.  Infection is acquired through open wounds or by ingestion of contaminated food or water. Common symptoms are those associated with gastroenteritis (nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea) and wound infections.

Edwardsiella tarda:  This is a gram-negative rod bacteria usually found in the intestines of cold-blooded animals and in fresh water. It is an opportunistic pathogen occasionally causing acute gastroenteritis (nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea) and can be associated with meningitis, septicemia, and wound infections. Mode of transmission is via the fecal/oral route or ingestion of contaminated food.  Antibiotics are used for treatment.

Melioidosis:  Also called Whitmore's disease is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei. Melioidosis is clinically and pathologically similar to glanders disease, but the ecology and epidemiology of melioidosis are different from glanders. Melioidosis is predominately a disease of tropical climates, especially in Southeast Asia where it is endemic. The bacteria causing melioidosis are found in contaminated water and soil and are spread to humans and animals through direct contact with the contaminated source. Illness from melioidosis can be categorized as acute or localized infection, acute pulmonary infection, acute bloodstream infection, and chronic suppurative infection. Inapparent infections are also possible. The incubation period (time between exposure and appearance of clinical symptoms) is not clearly defined, but may range from 2 days to many years.

Salmonella: This bacterium inhabits the intestinal tract of many animals and humans. Salmonella occurs worldwide and is easily transmitted through ingestion of contaminated material, either directly or indirectly. Common symptoms of the illness are acute gastroenteritis with sudden onset of abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and fever. The use of antibiotic treatment is standard treatment for this illness.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Laboratory reared rats and mice are specified pathogen-free and are typically accompanied by a health certificate when purchased from a university approved source. DLAR repeats health screening on rodents housed in the University’s animal facilities. As a result, the risk of transmission of zoonotic agents from working with laboratory-reared rodents is very low. However, human bite wounds and skin scratches may become infected and must be treated through immediate cleansing and follow-up through University Health Services.

The following are potential rodent zoonotic diseases:

Campylobacter: This is a gram negative bacterium that has a worldwide distribution. Although most cases of human campylobacteriosis are of unknown origin, transmission is thought to occur by the fecal-oral route through contamination of food or water, or by direct contact with infected fecal material. The organism has also been isolated from houseflies.  Campylobacter is shed in the feces for at least six weeks after infection. Symptoms are acute gastrointestinal illness: diarrhea with or without blood, abdominal pain, and fever. It may cause pseudoappendicitis and, rarely, septicemia and arthritis. Usually it is a brief self-limiting disease that can be treated with antibiotics.

Rat Bite Fever: The risk of rat-bite fever from Streptobacillus moniliformis or Spirillum minor inoculation into the bite wound is minimal due to the eradication of the causative agent from commercial rat colonies. The organisms are found in the respiratory tract and mouths of rats and are typically transmitted via bite wounds. Symptoms develop within 3-10 days, are flu-like and include fever, chills, muscle pain and headache. A rash may develop after fever onset. Without treatment, rat-bite fever can be serious or potentially fatal. Severe illnesses can include infections involving the heart, brain, lungs and abscesses in internal organs.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

The following is a list of zoonotic diseases associated with small ruminants:

Contagious Echthyma: (Orf) This poxviral disease is known as contagious ecthyma or soremouth in sheep and goats, and orf in people. In ruminants, it is evidenced by exudative (oozing) lesions found on the muzzle, eyelids, oral cavity, feet or external genitalia. It is more common in younger animals. The disease in ruminants is contagious to humans and other animals. Infected sheep or goats are the source of infection to people.  Transmission can be by direct contact with lesions or indirectly by contaminated fomites (hair, clothing). No person to person contact has been reported. This is a self-limiting infection, which is usually found on the hands and consists of painful nodules (bumps) and cutaneous ulcerative lesions, and usually lasts 1-2 months. 

Q-Fever: An infection caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii, is most commonly associated with sheep, although goats, cattle, and other mammals can be sources of infection. Infected ruminants are usually asymptomatic. The bacteria is shed in the urine, feces, milk, and most importantly, birth products (placenta, amniotic fluid, blood and soiled bedding) of infected animals. Q-fever is spread by aerosolization of infected body fluids. Disease transmission can be reduced by careful disposal of birth products.  In most cases Q -fever is manifested by flu-like symptoms that usually resolve within 2 weeks and can be sometimes misdiagnosed as the flu. However, it can be severe in those with other health issues and can lead to pulmonary and cardiac complications. Respiratory protection should be used during the lambing process.  Employees can be screened for Q-Fever through Occupational Health Services. 

Rabies:  Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection to people is an infected animal.  The virus is shed in saliva 1-14 days before clinical symptoms develop. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through direct contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. The incubation period is from 2 to 8 weeks or even longer. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and there are laryngeal spasms. Muscle spasms and extreme excitability are present and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through UK Occupational Health Services.

Other Diseases: There are other diseases that are associated with contact to sheep, such as brucellosis, campylobacteriosis, coccidiodomycosis, cryptosporidiosis, giardiasis and anthrax. Good personal hygiene and the wearing of the appropriate personal protection are effective measures for preventing illness.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Pigs are specified pathogen-free and are accompanied by a health certificate when purchased from a university approved source. As a result, the risk of transmission of zoonotic agents from working with pigs is very low.

The zoonotic diseases associated with handling swine includes the following:

Erysipelas is a bacterial infection of swine caused by Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae that is transmitted through direct contact with animals, tissues and droppings. The risk of infection increases if people have unprotected cuts or abrasions on their hands. Disease in humans may present as painful, red/purple swelling on the hands. In severe cases it can lead to systemic infections including cellulitis, bacteremia, endocarditis, encephalitis, and arthritis.

Influenza: Influenza A virus is a common respiratory pathogen of pigs. Swine can be susceptible to infection with swine-specific influenza viruses, as well as avian (bird) and human influenza viruses. For this reason, swine are commonly referred to as “mixing vessels.” Infection of swine with multiple strains of influenza A may result in genetic reassortment, creating new influenza virus strains. Routes of transmission include direct contact, aerosol and fomites. Disease in humans may present as fever, lethargy, lack of appetite, coughing, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. 

Other diseases: Crytospordosis, salmonellosis, E. coli, Campylobacter, giardia, Balantidium coli, and yersinia enterocolitica are examples of some of the diseases that can be transmitted via the fecal/oral route and manifest as acute gastrointestinal illness.  Ascari suum and influenza are examples of diseases that can be transmitted through inhalation.  These diseases are exhibited by respiratory difficulty as well as gastrointestinal illness.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

The following is a list of potential turtle and tortoise zoonoses:

Campylobacter: This is a gram negative bacterium that has a worldwide distribution. Although most cases of human campylobacteriosis are of unknown origin, transmission is thought to occur by the fecal-oral route, through contamination of food or water, or by direct contact with infected fecal material. The organism has also been isolated from houseflies.  Campylobacter is shed in the feces for at least six weeks after infection. Symptoms are acute gastrointestinal illness: diarrhea with or without blood, abdominal pain, and fever. It may cause pseudoappendicitis and, rarely, septicemia and arthritis. Usually it is a brief self-limiting disease that can be treated with antibiotics.

Salmonellosis:  Is a disease caused by the bacteria species Salmonella. It is one of the most common zoonotic diseases in humans.  Birds and reptiles (especially iguanas) are the animals most frequently associated with Salmonella.  Most people typically contract the disease by consuming food or water contaminated with the bacteria. Symptoms include diarrhea (usually watery and occasionally bloody), nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, and abdominal cramps. If the bacteria leaves the blood stream and enters the central nervous system, meningitis and or encephalitis may develop. Salmonellosis is a very serious disease in humans, especially for young children and people with compromised immune systems. Antibiotics are the standard treatment.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

The following is a list of some of the potential wild rodents and rabbits.

Campylobacter: This is a gram negative bacterium that has a worldwide distribution. Although most cases of human campylobacteriosis are of unknown origin, transmission is thought to occur by the fecal-oral route, through contamination of food or water, or by direct contact with infected fecal material. The organism has also been isolated from houseflies.  Campylobacter is shed in the feces for at least six weeks after infection. Symptoms are acute gastrointestinal illness: diarrhea with or without blood, abdominal pain, and fever. It may cause pseudoappendicitis and, rarely, septicemia and arthritis. Usually it is a brief self-limiting disease that can be treated with antibiotics.

Hantavirus Infection:  Hantavirus occurs mainly among the wild rodent populations. Rats and mice have been implicated in outbreaks of the disease. Rodents shed the virus in their respiratory secretions, saliva, urine and feces. Transmission to humans is via inhalation of infectious aerosols. The disease is characterized by fever, headache, myalgia (muscle aches) and petechiae (rash) and other hemorrhagic symptoms including anemia and gastrointestinal bleeding.

Leptospirosis: Is bacteria found in many animals but are most commonly associated with livestock and dogs.  The source of infection can be from any of the following: rats, mice, voles, hedgehogs, gerbils, squirrels, rabbits, hamsters, reptiles, dogs, sheep, goats, horses, standing water.  Leptospires are in the urine of infected animals and are transmitted through direct contact with urine or tissues via skin abrasions or contact with mucous membranes. Transmission can also occur through inhalation of infectious droplet aerosols and by ingestion.  The disease in people is multi-systemic disease with chronic sequelae.  An annular rash is often present with flu like symptoms. Cardiac and neurological disorders may follow and arthritis is a common end result. 

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis: Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM) is caused by the arenavirus commonly associated with hamsters, but does infect mice. LCM is rare in laboratory animal facilities, more common in the wild. Transmission to humans is through contact with tissues including tumor, feces, urine, or aerosolization of any one of these. Disease in humans is generally flu-like symptoms that range from mild to severe.

Rabies: Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection to people is an infected animal. The virus is shed in the animal’s saliva 1-14 days before developing clinical signs. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and there are laryngeal (throat) spasms. Muscle spasms and extreme excitability are present and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through Occupational Health Services.